APEH Review Notes

(student edition)

RENAISSANCE- 1450

Burkhart- first to use the word renaissance, explaining it as a new beginning

Johann Guttenburg: printing press

Virtu- man has ability to do what he wants to do, element of being human. Thinking sets them apart. What to be recognized for who they are individually, learning becomes valuable

see individualism

Individualism- belief that I am my own person and the world is going to know, I will be the best at what I do.

descrates “I think there for I am”
picco “man can be all things if only he will”
cellini- goldsmith, but the best the world has yet to produce. Writes the first autobiography so that the world knows who he is
Michelangelo commissioned by Pope Julius II to paint the ceiling of the Sistine chapel, paints one panel “the creation of man” onto which man is almost equal with god, his hand is limp and therefore if only he will he can raise his hand with little effort and be equal to god
Botticelli- painted the birth of Venus, puts himself in picture looking to see if audience likes his work. Now painters either sign their work or put themselves in it because they have importance before no one cared and it didn’t matter

Rationalism- now the people want proof, they do not simply believe everything they are told

Lorenzo Valla- commissioned to catalog the Vatican library, hired by Pope Sixtus finds one document, the donation of Constantine that could not have been written in the time it was said. This document gives the church holdings over the land. If a document that was supposedly connected directly back to god is wrong, the church and religion has a problem.

Secularism- religion no longer going to be the center of one’s life, begin to blame things on the individual rather then simply “god’s will”

Lorenzo Valla- see above
Donatello David compared to Michelangelo’s David

Humanism- study the past, ancient Greece and Rome, people realize that they know nothing and they need to learn the knowledge that was there before them first

Raphael- painted the school at Athens in the annex of the Sistine chapel, admired and learned from Michelangelo. His painting had all the ancient important figures and their contributions to the world i.e Pythagorean and his Pythagorean theorem
Lorenzo valla- wants to catalog the library because as he does it he reads all the documents to learn about the past

REFORMATION

Juan Huss- same views of Luther, different time period, burned at stake
10 percent of annual income goes to the Church, the majority of which is sent to Rome
fears of hell frightened the people into following the wishes of the church
Pope Leo X: antagonist of Luther, arranged for indulgences to be sold claiming to relieve the people of their sins
Martin Luther- starts reformation, memorized bible and realizes that the church is not preaching what the book says
Phrase in bible that motivates the refo: “the just shall live by faith and salvation comes from understanding the words of god”
Tetzel: sold the indulgences
95 theses: makes tons of copies, the people want answers
problems: church says there are 7 sacraments, bible says 2. issue over church who says transubstantiation and Luther who says consubstantiation, problem with indulgences if the pop can forgive sins he should forgive everyone not just those with money
Diet of worms: Charles V, holy roman emperor excommunicates Luther
Fredrick the Wise: German prince, protects Luther, Germany sending 10 percent of GNP to Rome every year, if Luther is right don’t need to, comes up with the idea for a Lutheran church, Luther never wanted a separate entity
John Calvin- Calvinists, sees religion and politics as the same, end up with several theocratic states, revolves around predestination- long before you are born god knows your fate. (god is omnipotent, omnipresent, and omniscient) knows who god favors by who has money and a good life vs poor
Anabaptists: radicals, rejected infant baptism, only get baptized as an adult when you are a real Christian
Max Weaver- protestant work ethic, in protestant faith hard work is appreciated while Catholics are more concerned with good works and living spiritually (protestants went out and worked really hard to make money, powerful industrial nations i.e England and Germany protestant)
Erasmus- knows that catholic church is wrong decides to deal with it from within, writes “In Praise of Folly” points our errors in a way to let the people realize it for themselves

POLITICAL SIDE: ENGLAND

King Henry VIII- switches England from purely Catholic to protestant, efforts motivated exclusively from politics
Needs a divorce from Catherine who cant have a son, if he doesn’t get a divorce his daughter marry will be married to a Spaniard and England doesn’t want a Spanish king, pope refuses to let him have a divorce
Created the Anglican church, making head of state head of church, he was now able to grant himself a divorce
Mary’s Anne Bolin who has a girl names Elizabeth
1534: Act of Supremacy- head of state is the head of church-- Henry VIII
1534: Act of Succession- Elizabeth is the sole heir to the throne, Mary is illigit
1534: The Three Oaths- 1. oath of loyalty to the king 2. Affirmation king head of church 3. Elizabeth sole heir (everyone in England had to agree)
1536: the 10 articles- Anglican church agrees with principles of Lutheran church
peace of Augsburg: religion of prince is religion of state, can choose either Catholicism or Lutheranism (other sects were not included at first)

CATHOLIC REFORMATION

Council of Trent- defined Roman catholic doctrine and initiated a program to eliminate abuses in the church
Rejected any possibility of compromise with the protestants, reaffirmed traditional catholic teaching
Strengthened the authority of the pope as head of the catholic church
Ignatius Loyola- founded the society of Jesus, Jesuits, wrote The Spiritual Exercises, Catholic soldier for God. Set forth a system of disciplined prayer and asceticism to guide the members of society.

WARS OF RELIGION

France

dynastic conflict intensifies wars of religion between Huguenots (French protestants) and Catholics
from 1547-1589, ruled by a series of ineffective rulers
Catherine de’ Medici- became the key figure during the reigns of her three sons, refused to let protestants get the upper hand but wanted to preserve peace between religions
none could cope effectively with the intensifying Catholic-Huguenot conflict
open warfare between the Catholics and Huguenots broke out in 1562
St. Bartholomew’s Day massacre- weekend of marriage of Margaret and Henry of Navarre, a Catholic to a Huguenot, Catherine de’ Medici ordered the mass extermination of Huguenots
War or the three Henry’s- between Henry III (Valois), Henry of Navarre (Bourbon), and Henry duke of Guise,
2 ended up being assassinated and Henry of Navarre became King Henry IV, making peace between the contending religious factions “Paris is worth a mass”
edict of Nantes- passed by Henry, made Catholicism the official religion of France but gave Huguenots the right to worship at home and hold religious services in specified areas

Netherlands/ Spain

King Philip II hoped to use Spanish power in support of the catholic cause against Protestants (built Escorial Palace as a symbol of his power)
Netherlanders/ Dutch resented foreign rule, revolted against Spanish rule (against the higher taxes imposed and the king’s attempt to promote the catholic reformation here where most were Calvinists )
Philip sent the Duke of Alva, his reign of terror lasted 6 years, he formed the council of blood which executed tons of people
The northern provinces formed the Union of Utrecht finding an effective leader in William of Orange
There was a virtual Spanish acceptance of Dutch independence of the Calvinist United Provinces (northern Netherlands), southern Netherlands remain catholic and loyal to Spain, independence formally recognized in the Treaty of Westphalia, specifically the Treaty of Munster

Battle of Lepanto- Philip II organized a combined fleet to fight the Turks, destroyed a Turkish naval force at Lepanto
1588, launched the Spanish Armada against England fleet
armada entered the English channel, held back by what came to be known as the “Protestant wind”, English victory, accentuated England’s rise to international dominance

30 years war

Protestant Union created against the Catholic league, tension between the two would ignite the first phase of this war
began in Bohemia, 1618 the Calvinist revolt began with the Defenestration of Prague in which a crowd of protesters, ended with a catholic victory
against Emperor Ferdinand II who imposed significant limitations on Protestant worship in Bohemia
Albert Wallenstein- bohemian catholic noble, alternated between extreme generosity and horrible cruelty and was always accompanied by an executioner
Danish period of the war also ended with a catholic victory
in Sweden, the protestant cause found a new defender in King Gustavus Adolphus
France focused its attention on a war against Spain and after victory, they moved to Germany
Poltiques- group of moderate Catholics, tired of anarchy and bloodshed, were ready to put politics ahead of religion, sought to win the support of the moderate Huguenots to bring religious toleration and peace to France
ended with the peace of Westphalia in 1848, formally recognized the independence of the Dutch republic and Switzerland, expanded the Peace of Augsburg to include Calvinists

ENGLISH RULE 16th CENTURY (1537-1603)

Edward- son of Henry VIII, English church became more protestant

English clergy now permitted to marry
Reinstituted the Book of Common Prayer, put together by Thomas Crammer, defined the Anglican religion

Mary I- becomes queen

no one wants her because she is Spanish Catholic, tries to bring back the catholic faith and marrys Phillip II of Spain
arrested and killed at least 1,000 people, bloody Mary

Elizabeth I- gets the throne 1558, “I have the heart and stomach of a king”

“Elizabethan age” , last of the Tudors to rule England
passed a new act of supremacy to get rid of all Mary’s laws
catholic but nation wants to be protestant so she rules as a protestant monarch “I will make no windows onto men’s souls” (if want to be a catholic practice at home but not in public)
supports the Dutch Netherlands, wont let Ireland become independent so sends an army there to stop the people when they rebel
negotiates and persuades parliament and gets them to support her rather then demand laws, uses parliament so much that they are accustomed that when she dies they are in shock
39 articles- defining statement of Anglican doctrine, adherence to them was made legal
enclosure movement- (economic expansion), utilized by many landowners to expand their holdings, fencing off land for oneself and to sell (England)
Sir Thomas More- wrote Utopia imaginary island where all people live in peace and harmony, blamed England’s economic inequalities on enclosure
Dutch east India company: chartered by Elizabeth, represented the interests of the state, had the goal of competing with Dutch traders
Sir Thomas More- became England’s representative un the river port, enhanced the reputation of English business to the point that English merchants could operate on credit
Poor laws- passed, recognized for the first time the principle that the needy ought to receive some sort of assistance
did not marry, successor becomes her cousin James, parliament and James are at odds which leads to civil war and the English revolution

ECONOMY SPAIN 16th century

prince revolution- economic boom of the 16th century brought a considerable rise to princes
Rise of spain: Isabella and Ferdinand created a centralized monarchy, imposed the Spanish inquisition interrogated and punished those accused of questioning Church doctrine
Potosi: enhanced Spanish economy, rich silver mines in Peru discovered by the Spanish in 1545
Grandees- Spanish high aristocratic title

ENGLISH REVOLUTION

James I- begins to rule in 1603, first Stuart king

everything that Elizabeth was not
England is near broke, forced to constantly ask parliament for money, they can control him
Used to having power over Scots but not strong enough for parliament his concept of being king is divine right
Rising inflation, and cant raise taxes without parliament who hate him because he favored peace with Spain and married his son to a devout catholic and James wont give in to parliament because he is divine right so no compromise
Gunpowder plot: 1605, led by Guy Fawkes who is a catholic extremist, decide to kill James and Parliament but fails
James dies

Charles I- 1625, sincere Anglican

1640, Scots rise in rebellion, Charles I creates an army to put them down, gets money from Parliament and now has to sign:
1. the petition of right: king had no right to impose taxes without parliament consent, no one who refused to pay would be arrested comes with the amendment:
2. writ of habeas corpus: crown has no right to imprison anyone without demonstrating just cause in a court, up until this people were arrested and killed for no reason because the crown had unlimited power, limiting monarchial authority
charles is divine right, and violates these laws, and dismisses parliament constantly

ENGLISH CIVIL WAR-

Roundheads- parliaments soldiers
Cavaliers- thought of themselves as fighting the good fight for God and King
Oliver Cromwell- leads the roundheads to victory at Marston Moor, emerged as the leader of parliament, wants to put an end to abuses of crown
Parliament forms the New Model Army, professional soldiers lef by trained generals
2 major battles: Marston Moore and Nasby, both victories for the anti-royalist armies
Charles surrendered and was later executed
1648: Colonel Pride (one of Cromwell’s associates), Prides Purge, took his cavalry to Parliament and threw out all those who were not supporters of the Grandees, left with 60 RUMP PARLIAMENT
Rump parliament abolished the monarchy and established a Puritan republic, the Commonwealth of England, with Cromwell as its leader, interregnum (between kings), turns England into a dull society, prohibits everything
Steward respiration

Charles II- seemed to end the division and chaos, 1661

the Church of England again became the established Church
signed a secret treaty with Louis XIV of France to return England to Catholicism
ended restrictions on Catholics
Parliament passed the Test Act which excluded non-Anglicans broth both military and civil office
Parliament spilt: Tories: full support of the monarchy and Whigs: advocated parliament supremacy
Charles attempted to rule without parliament, died

James II, 1685 began to dismiss advisors who were not catholic

1687 made Catholics eligible for office
1688 issued declaration of tolerance
William of Orange prepared to invade England, and aided by a “Protestant wing” that blew his ships to the coast of England while leaving James’s fleet in the port, he was successful and James fled
Glorious revolution

William and Mary- 1688, occupied a double throne

accepted the Bill of rights which reaffirmed the right of government and of the accused to the rule of law
John Locke- argued a gov could only be legit if it received the consent of the governed and protected natural rights of life, liberty, and estate. Justifies the concept of revolution

AGE OF ABSOLUTISM (1650-1720)

absolutism: coercive state authority
Thomas Hobbes- theorist of absolutism, Leviathan, believed that absolutism could was the answer, the people enter a social contract with their ruler, surrendering their rights in exchange for protection
Bishop Boussuet- postulated that rulers rule by divine right, by virtue of the will of god, bishop of Louis XIV
Absolute leaders were able to maintain armies and wage war through the collection of taxes
Louis XIV- divine right ruler, under his reign France achieved political and military dominance and cultural dominance, created an absolutist and centralized state
Absolute monarchs intruded in matters of faith, lent their authority and prestige to the church
They designed their capitals to represent their authority, St. Petersburg and Versailles
Colbert- under Louis XIV, dubbed “the North”, France’s firmer financial footing was owed to him, mercantilism
Mercantilism- provided the financial basis for absolutist France, posited that all resources should be put into the service of the state and that a state’s wealth was measured by its ability to import more gold and silver the exported
Louis XIV’s sale of offices and title expanded the nobility causing differences between nobles of the sword (those who could trace back their noble lineage centuries) and nobles of the robe (purchased their office)
Revoked the edict of Nantes- created a state of affairs where only the majority religion was tolerated, caused an early brain drain to France

RUSSIA

Tsar Ivan the Terrible- 1533, goals to assure himself a reliable military and sufficient revenue, means to create a service state
Time of troubles- followed Ivan’s death, period of anarchy, weak successors inability to produce change
Serfdom emerged as one of the fundamental characteristics of Russian absolutism
Peter the Great- 1682, imposed order, borrowed Western technical knowledge, transformed Russia into a major European power “dragged Russia kicking and screaming”
Peter introduced the table of ranks- required all male nobles to enter state service, determined a persons position according to service to the tsar
Catherine the Great- 1762, continued Peter’s program of development and reduced internal barriers to trade, the Charter of the Nobility- formally recognized the rights and privileges of the nobility, fought a successful war against the Ottoman empire

PRUSSIA
- Fredrick William The Great Elector, 1640

built Prussian army, religious toleration, no real power

Fredrick I, 1688, patron of the arts
Fredrick William I, 1713, main focus Prussian army, doesn’t want to use it just builds it to be able to threaten
Fredrick II (Fredrick the Great), 1740, gets involved in war of Austrian succession, attacks Austria and captures Silesia, strengthened commerce and industry, one of the enlightened despots, policy of relative religious toleration

SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION

Inductive reasoning- proceedings from observation and experimentation to conclusions and generalizations
Deductive reasoning- deducing a conclusion from a set of premises, not from scientific observation
Rene Descartes- world made up of mind and matter, “Cogito, ergo sum” I think therefore I am, self evident truth
Francis Bacon- philosopher, helped detach science from philosophy, called for “ total reconstruction of sciences, arts, and all human knowledge”. Wrote Novum Organum Science has as a practical purpose the goal of human improvement
Royal society of London- under patronage of Charles II, reflected the growing interest in science in England, society for improving natural knowledge, learned society
Republic of science- formation of learned associations, focal point for the exchange of scientific information and debates over findings
Galen- first person to develop theories about medicine based on scientific experiments
William Harvey- first person to correctly describe, in detail, the properties of blood being pumped around the body by the heart
Newton- laid the foundation for modern science, theory of gravitation
Ptolemaic system- accepted Aristotle’s contentions asserting that the earth was encased by a series of clear spheres
Galileo Galilei- first break from Aristotle, positing that the earth revolved around the sun, improved the telescope challenging the church, wrote Two Chief Systems of the World
Copernicus- also postulated that the earth revolved around the sun , wrote On the Revolutions of Heavenly Bodies, heliocentric theory

INDUSTRIALIZATION

England’s advantages-

strong agricultural society
large and growing population (surplus of labor)
accept technology
sound system of banking
transportation systems already put in place

cant happen unless have agricultural revo first
enclosure movement- biggest factor in England, spurred agricultural revo
Thomas malthus- food supply limits population
technological revolution-

John Kay: flying shuttle, doubled amount of cloth a women could make in a day
James Hargreaves: spinning jenny, a machine that could produce four times the thread
Arkwright: creates a water frame powered by a river, connects several flying shuttles so can work more

- Between 1600 and 1750 population of the world just about tripled

James Walt- steam engine
Thomas Newcomen- improved steam engine

3 needs for industrialization: capital, commerce, and transportation
England has national banks, colonies, and navy
Belgium next to become industrialized because have abundance of coal and iron

SOCIAL ASPECTS

-short term misery in return for long term gain
women can do factory work whereas before they could not do farm work because it required muscle
changing roles in family- women and children become employed
factory work doesn’t require skill or education so education takes a step back
produced bleeding heart liberals, humanitarians who were concerned with the welfare of humanity

ENLIGHTENMENT

-enlightenment- men working on ways to improve intellectual world
takes concept of natural law and tries to take it and connect it to government
about changing quality of education and changing the number of those educated
Philosophes:

admire natural world
believe we can create perfect humans/ thrilles with advances of science
rapidly embracing new religion: deist, puts burden of everything on man empowering themselves

salons- helped spread enlightened thought bringing people together in discussion
ENLIGHTENED DESPOTS
Fredrick the Great- wanted to be remembered as an enlightened ruler, turned his court into a center of learning for the nobility
Joseph II- Austria, banned torture and capital punishment, established a centralized system for education, passed the edict of toleration which extended some toleration to non Catholics
Catherine the great- followed advice from Diderot “to instruct a nation is to civilize it”
Republic of letters- members sought to change the way people thought, communicated ideas in writing

Enlightened writers

Isaac Newton: helps make world secular, not liked by church, says man is dignified and made this way by god, since given a working thinking mind should use it
John Locke- “two treatise of government”, asserts that the people have a right to live, liberty, and property. Government is placed on earth to protect these rights , and by natural law have the right and obligation to overthrow gov if it fails to protect these rights
Montesquieu- “spirit of the law”, gov needs to be divided because no one can do it all, 3 branches: judicial, legislative, and executive, need separate to create a system of checks and balances
Rousseau- “the social contract” majority always right minority always wrong, majority is the common man and the minority the aristocracy, majority will eventually get the side of the minority the longer it takes the more aggressive it becomes
Volatire- against cruelty, for freedom of thought “crush the infamous thing” , the church, because religion did not allow for freedom of thought
Beccaria- “On Crime and Punishment”, concept of justice should be greatest good for the greatest number, crime and punishment should match
Diderot: editor of encyclopedia, collected articles and works, 1st real collection of human knowledge
Hobbes: “Leviathan”, a small gov can mange a large place, says gov doesn’t receive power from god but from contract with the people
Mozart- his music portrayed his belief in the ability of mankind to develop greater virtue and a capacity for love
John Wesley and Methodism- all people equal in gods eyes

FRENCH REVOLUTION

spurred by enlightened thought
ideal Rousseau “men are born free and remain free and equal in rights”
leading factor: French kings are broke
Louis XIV: bankrupt the state, by excessiveness of Versailles and revocation of the edict of Nantes which caused an early brain drain
Louis XV: decreased work ethic, adds Turgot to French gov who is a good economist and tells king he’s spending too much, Turgot understands problem and has solution (tax clergy and nobility) but nobility wont listen, king dismisses him
King going to confront the estates general, first time, delegates want to be there, third estate gets deluded by innocent mistake of caretaker of the building
3rd estate leave and decide that they are the legal representative of France and call themselves the National Assembly, some of 1st and 2nd estate join them, king orders them dismissed but troops refuse “tennis court oath”
revolution creates vocab: liberals and conservatives
Louis XVI- bad leader, doesn’t understand political process, made third estate legal, compromises his position of leadership
Marie Antoinette- his Austrian wife
July 14th, 1789 the storming of the Bastille: members of the third estate arrive in the name of liberty to free the 7 prisoners, members of the nobility
Beginning the great fear- peasants ruin anything they think is wrong form their point of view because no one is running the country—case of extreme anarchy
Declaration of the rights of man and citizen: everyone has same rights
Women’s bread march on Versailles, hunger becoming prevalent, demand bread. Infamous “let them eat cake” Marie Antoinette, take it as an insult
Declaration of the rights of women and citizen: Olympe de Gouge: since making change time to go all the way and give women rights, women should no longer be oppressed, executed by revolution
French constitution: set up constitutional monarchy
King becomes a prisoner of the state when he tries to flee the country
Declaration of pillnitz: Austria and Prussia will intervene in France if feel the monarchy is being threatened
Night of August 4, 1789 - date of the declaration by liberal noblemen of the National Assembly at a secret meeting to abolish the feudal regime in France.
National convention is created want to create a new constitution, prolciams you are either with them or against them, start mass execution, split between Jacobins and Girondists
Committee of public safety: dictatorship of Jacobins, lead by Robespierre
Goal to protect France and drive out outside forces, 1793-1794, reign of terror, military conscription and mass execution
Thermedorian reaction- revolt against the excesses of the reign of terror, Robespierre arrested and executed, revolution leaderless
The directory is now established with Napoleon Bonaparte as leader, going to impose martial (military) law and have a limited monarchy that is constitutional
“liberty, equality, and fraternity”
neoclassicism style of art during revo

Estate’s general
National Assembly
Tennis court oath
Storming the Bastille
Declaration of rights of man and citizen
Bread March
Night of Aug 4th
National convention
Execution of Louis XIV
Reign of terror
Committee of Public Safety
Thermidorian reaction
directory

NAPOLEON

Consulat- concentrated strong executive authority in the hands of Napoleon, new gov after the directory

Napoleonic code- The codification and condensation of laws assuring legal equality and uniformity in France.

Concordat (1801) - Napoleon's arrangement with the papacy, declared Catholicism “the religion of the majority of citizens”

Continental System-Napoleon's efforts to block foreign trade with England by forbidding Importation of British goods Into Europe.

Coup d'etat.-Overthrow of those in power, how Napoleon rose to power

Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) - Consul and later emperor of France (1799-1815), who established several of the reforms (Code Napoleon) of the French Revolution during his dictatorial rule.

Peninsular War (1808-1813) - Napoleon's long-drawn-out war with Spain.

Treaty of Tilsit (1807 - Agreement between Napoleon and Czar Alexander I in which Russia became an ally of France and Napoleon took over the lands of Prussia west of the Elbe as well as the Polish provinces.

Battle of Trafalgar- British victory over the French, great Britain now controlled the seas and any chance for French invasion of England evaporated

Grand Army- Napoleon’s army,half of it consisted of conscripts, almost constantly at war

Legion of honor- established by Napoleon, established to reward those who served the nation with distinction

Notables- an elite that napoleon created, title given rewarding those who served him well

Citizen-soldiers- changed warfare when armies became made up of these, held greater commitment to their cause

Confederation of the Rhine- organized by Napoleon, composed of 16 German states members agreed to support Napoleon if war broke out again

“Authority from above, confidence from below”- principle of Napoleon

“A Career open to all talents”- motto of napoleon, the end of social distinctions by birth

The coalitions-Russia and Prussia signed an alliance agreeing to fight napoleon until the independence of the states of Europe was restored, Great Britain and Austria later joined

St. Helena- small island where Napoleon was sent in exile and died

100 days- period from Napoleon’s return to France until his final defeat, quickly made plans to raise an army, allies raised an enormous army and cursed him once and for all

Duke of Wellington- led British troops to fight the French at waterloo, he defeated Napoleon for the last time

Waterloo- British forces met with Napoleons forces, napoleon defeated

Louis XVII- asked to return to France as king, vowed to turn back the clock to before the revolution, fled France for 100 days when napoleon returned